• Midbrain organoids (MOs) recapitulate key PD pathological hallmarks, enabling mechanistic studies and drug screening.
• MOs support genetic modelling of PD-linked mutations (LRRK2, GBA1, DNAJC6) and optogenetics-assisted α-synuclein aggregation.
• MOs show promise for cell replacement therapy, with successful integration and functional recovery in animal PD models.
• Challenges like batch variability, limited vascularization, and high costs must be overcome to enhance reproducibility and scalability.