From gut to liver: organoids as platforms for next-generation toxicology assessment vehicles for xenobiotics

• Organoids provide a physiologically relevant 3D platform that overcomes limitations of 2D cultures and animal models, enabling more accurate prediction of human toxicological responses. • Gut and liver organoids are particularly valuable for assessing xenobiotic toxicity, as they recapitulate the gut-liver axis and allow study of nutrient absorption, barrier function, and metabolic detoxification. • Patient-derived organoids enable personalized toxicology, revealing inter-individual variability in drug responses and supporting precision medicine. • Integration of organoid models into drug development can enhance safety assessment efficiency, but standardization of protocols is essential to address reproducibility challenges.