The relationship between inflammatory cytokines and frozen shoulder: a large-sample analysis of the European population based on the FinnGen GWAS database

• Bidirectional Mendelian randomization revealed a complex causal relationship between MCP-3 and frozen shoulder, with MCP-3 potentially serving as a therapeutic target. • TNF-β was identified as a potential risk factor for frozen shoulder, showing a significant positive association. • Frozen shoulder was associated with elevated SDF-1α levels, suggesting SDF-1α as a potential diagnostic biomarker. • The study demonstrates the utility of large-scale GWAS data and Mendelian randomization in uncovering causal links between inflammatory cytokines and musculoskeletal disorders.