Human Tissue Engineering: A Comprehensive Review of Current Models and Future Directions

• Advanced scaffold designs and biomaterials significantly enhance cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation for tissue regeneration. • Integration of stem cells with growth factors and bioreactor systems improves the functionality and maturation of engineered tissues. • 3D bioprinting and organ-on-chip platforms enable precise spatial control and mimic physiological microenvironments, accelerating drug testing and disease modeling. • Overcoming challenges such as vascularization and immune rejection is crucial for successful clinical translation of tissue-engineered constructs.