Biocompatibility and preclinical experiments of a Chinese-made 3D-printed minimally invasive tungsten alloy needle electrodes

• Chinese-made 3D-printed tungsten alloy needle electrodes exhibit no significant cytotoxicity, skin irritation, or sensitization, confirming good biocompatibility. • Compared with 304 stainless steel electrodes, the 3D-printed tungsten alloy electrodes significantly reduce tissue adhesion, though they increase intraoperative blood loss and smoke formation. • The performance of Chinese-made 3D-printed tungsten alloy electrodes is comparable to imported tungsten alloy electrodes in terms of adhesion, blood loss, and smoke formation. • Postoperative wound healing and histological outcomes are similar among stainless steel, imported tungsten, and Chinese-made tungsten electrodes, indicating safety for clinical use.