Advancements in CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing: A Comprehensive Review of Therapeutic Applications and Ethical Considerations

• CRISPR-Cas9 has enabled precise gene editing, leading to successful clinical trials for genetic disorders like sickle cell disease and beta-thalassemia. • Recent innovations such as base editing and prime editing significantly reduce off-target effects and expand the scope of editable mutations. • Ethical frameworks must address germline editing, equitable access, and ecological risks to ensure responsible use of the technology. • Delivery systems and immune responses remain critical barriers to broader clinical application, necessitating further research.